Question to answer: Has the introduction of multi-party elections in the 1990s resulted in the consolidation of meaningful democracy in Africa? (Be explicit about the criteria you use in making your assessment. Consider the spectrum of experiences and think systematically about the factors that might lie behind the variance you observe. Make use of the cases discussed in class and your readings.)

sources to use:

Philippe Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl. 1991. “What Democracy Is … and Is Not.” Journal of Democracy 2(3): 75-83 (Excerpt).

Schaffer, Frederic C. 1998. Democracy in Translation: Understanding Politics in an Unfamiliar Culture. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 21-31, 54-64, 80-85.

Ake, Claude. 1993. “The Unique Case of African Democracy.” International Affairs 69(April): 239-244.

Nyerere, Julius. 1966. “Democracy and the Party System.” In Freedom and Unity: A Selection From Writings and Speeches, 1952-65, 195-203. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Opalo, Kennedy Ochieng’. 2012. “African Election: Two Divergent Trends.” Journal of Democracy, 23 (3): 80-93.

Crowder, Michael. 1987. “Whose Dream Was It Anyway? Twenty-Five Years of African Independence.” African Affairs 86(342): 7-24.